Date
June 2010
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PublicationContexte
Anthony Masure, « iPad et mimesis », journée d’étude à propos de László Moholy-Nagy, laboratoire de recherche CREDE, juin 2010
Résumé
Étude et analyse de l’interface de lecture de l’application iBooks sur iPad : comment sortir d’un modèle mimétique pour proposer une expérience de lecture singulière ?
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Date
May 2013
Type
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Anthony Masure, «Travailler l’impensable », préface du recueil d’articles Secousses, Campus Fonderie de l’Image, Bagnolet, mai 2013
Résumé
« Tout objet produit par l’homme est la matérialisation d’un pensable-possible : quelque chose à quoi quelqu’un a pensé et qui peut être réalisé. Le pensable-possible se situe au carrefour des évolutions de la pensée […] et du développement technologique quant aux matériaux disponibles, aux procédés de transformation et aux systèmes de prévision et de contrôle. Cette interaction entre le pensable et le possible, qui se traduit dans ce que nous appelons un projet, est loin d’être simple et linéaire. Le pensable n’est pas un champ ouvert qui devrait rentrer dans les limites du possible, la conscience de ces limites étant déjà un élément constitutif de ce qui peut être pensé. D’autre part, ce qui peut être pensé dépasse la simple acceptation des limites connues. L’acte créateur et inventif se traduit notamment par la capacité de déplacer dans un autre système de références certaines données contraignantes, pour produire ainsi quelque chose de nouveau auquel on n’avait pas encore pensé, et qui pouvait donc sembler impensable 1Ezio Manzini, introduction à La Matière de l’Invention (1986), Paris, Centre Georges Pompidou, coll. Inventaire, 1989, p. 14.. » Si le graphisme est la « manière de représenter le langage par l’écriture 2 Définition de 1875. Citée dans : Alain Rey (dir.), Dictionnaire historique de la langue française, Paris, Robert, 2011. », qu’en est-il de l’écriture de cette discipline ? Des structures éditoriales comme B42, Ypsilon ou The Shelf Company, des initiatives comme Graphisme en France ou des évènements comme Les Rencontres de Lure témoignent, à l’échelle française, d’un intérêt soutenu pour les enjeux théoriques et techniques du design graphique. Cette « manie d’écrire 3 Alain Rey, op. cit. » est-elle pour autant cultivée chez les professionnels de la profession ? Rien n’est moins sûr. Au-delà de l’inévitable côté « entre-soi » des critiques, les contraintes économiques et le temps qui s’y échappe ne favorisent pas l’élargissement des limites de « ce qui peut être pensé 4 Ezio Manzini, op. cit. ». Le projet d’un recueil d’articles rédigés par des étudiants en design graphique permet de développer quelques réflexions sur la notion d’école comme lieu de distance critique. Un exercice critique Ce livre est constitué de textes rédigés par des étudiants engagés en première année de « Mastère Design Graphique » à La Fonderie de l’Image, une école où le visible est interrogé à chaque strate diplômante. Particularité de cet établissement : les élèves sont employés « en alternance » environ deux semaine sur trois dans des agences de communication (édition, web, vidéo, etc.). Dès lors, il est vain de chercher à imiter des conditions professionnelles. L’exercice critique apparaît comme un contrepoint nécessaire vis-à-vis des réalités des métiers. Emprunté à Catherine de Smet, l’appel « pour une critique du design graphique 5 Catherine de Smet, Pour une critique du design graphique. Dix-huit essais, Valence, B42, 2012. » vise à prendre conscience de l’importance et de l’urgence d’une pensée de cette discipline aux frontières problématiques. La méthode d’écriture se réinvente à chaque objet d’étude, même si des principes propres à toute recherche peuvent se dégager : tracer l’histoire des formes, être attentif aux spécificités techniques, comprendre les enjeux commerciaux, articuler des niveaux de discours hétérogènes, construire des liens logiques entre des auteurs d’époques et de disciplines différentes, référencer précisément ses sources, etc. Le style d’écriture, également, peut se designer. Imaginons des articles alternant fictions, analyses historiques, concepts philosophiques, anthropologiques ou psychanalytiques, encarts techniques, entretiens, etc. La critique en design se doit de penser les formes possibles de son expression. L’école comme lieu du commun Ce travail de base sur le langage, la façon dont les projets de design graphique se construisent et se montrent, est essentiel. Dans le langage courant, nous entendons nombre d’expressions qui traduisent, pour peu qu’on les interroge, des réalités problématiques. Il s’agit d’éprouver « la capacité de déplacer 6 Ezio Manzini, op. cit. » des formes et des discours installés parmi nous. Comme le souligne Ezio Manzini, le spectre de la pensée est à la fois facteur des données de l’époque et de ce que l’on entreprend pour les dépasser. Travailler le champ du pensable permet de multiplier les possibles. La tâche du designer serait alors de s’affranchir de ses obligations immédiates pour pouvoir « produire [de] l’impensable ». Paradoxalement, la retraite de l’économique permettrait de rédimer 7 Du latin redimere : Racheter une faute, s’affranchir d’une obligation. l’activité de projet. L’école peut-elle être l’occasion d’un tel affranchissement ? Il faut tout d’abord séparer le lieu physique de l’activité de libre pensée (skholê). Cette distinction permet de formuler une échappée à l’administration de nos existences. Libérée des objectifs de rentabilité, l’école, au sens fort, est un temps du recul. Alors que les designers n’investissent que trop rarement les textes relatifs à leurs objets 8 Catherine Geel, « L’ordre sans qualité. Du décor et de la décoration », dans : Fresh Theory, tome 1, Paris, Léo Scheer, 2005, p. 97-113., l’école peut montrer l’exemple afin de combattre, si besoin, les accusations formulées à son encontre – ce supposé éloignement quant à un monde (plus) « réel ». Cette inquiétude n’est-elle pas précisément le signe qu’un déplacement a lieu ? N’est-ce pas le propre de l’école que de produire des situations professionnelles nouvelles, qui ne sont précisément pas celles de l’époque ? Le travail scolaire se doit d’errer, de questionner, de rater (quel meilleur endroit pour expérimenter l’erreur que l’école ?). L’injonction à former des êtres immédiatement adaptables ne vise-t-elle pas au fond à nier la possibilité d’un avenir fondamentalement inconnu, au profit d’un devenir prévisible dans tous ses aspects ? Cet « impératif utopique 9 Alain Fleischer, L’impératif utopique. Souvenirs d’un pédagogue, Paris, Galaade, coll. Essais, 2012. » se heurte bien entendu à des réalités pratiques. Le texte de Manzini rappelle que le projet, l’activité de projection, se construit à la fois avec et contre les « systèmes de prévision et de contrôle ». Pour autant, cette mise à distance ne saurait s’apparenter à un retrait du faire. Comme le rappelle Manzini, « tout objet produit par l’homme est [une] matérialisation », entendue au sens physique et mental. Cessons d’opposer la pratique et la théorie ; la théorie se pratique et une pratique non pensée ne conduit qu’à une « acceptation des limites [déjà] connues ». Manifester ces limites, les faire apparaître, c’est déjà faire projet, c’est voir au delà de ce qui est immédiatement possible. Pour ces raisons, il s’agit moins de penser le temps scolaire en terme de « formation » que « d’instruction », dont l’étymologie latine (struere) « munir, outiller, équiper, disposer par couches » indique l’élaboration d’outils permettant une émancipation de conditions initiales. D’autre part, l’école (cette fois pensée comme un principe d’organisation physique et temporel) peut permettre, lorsque les conditions sont réunies, de produire en commun. L’interaction de systèmes de références différents invite à réfléchir dans des cadres qui ne sont pas initialement les siens. Un objet éditorial ouvert Le titre « Secousses », choisi et assumé par les étudiants pour les tables-rondes et le recueil, nous semble recouper l’idée de déplacement indiquée précédemment. Ce « mouvement en avant », imprimé avec ardeur, invite à bousculer les idées reçues. Espérons qu’une telle énergie saura se retrouver au sein des différentes entrées du livre, préludes à des questionnements qui pourront être développés dans les mémoires de recherche de deuxième année. La division en cinq chapitres : « De l’écriture », « De l’imprimé », « Des écrans », « De l’espace public » et « Du quotidien » démontre la diversité des objets d’étude. Si le graphisme est affaire d’écriture, les supports d’activation de ces signes sont multiples et complexes : des signalétiques de métro aux mèmes numériques, des mutations de l’imprimé aux agrégateurs RSS, des tablettes numériques pour enfants aux gifs animés, des transformations des espaces de vente au graphisme « engagé », des marronniers du graphisme culturel aux emballages de jeux vidéo et pochettes de disque. Le champ ainsi traversé dessine un paysage graphique qui dit quelque chose des préoccupations de l’époque. La rédaction des articles s’est étalée sur six mois, le temps de relire, corriger et réécrire 10 Les articles ont été suivis par Anthony Masure, Adeline Goyet et Perrine Rousselet.. Ces textes ont été pensés dans le contexte d’une journée de tables-rondes autour du graphisme, qui aura lieu le 1 er juin 2013 à la Fonderie de l’Image en présence de quatre invités aux disciplines diverses 11 La première édition des tables-rondes, organisée par les Mastères Design Graphique deuxième année, a réuni le 9 février 2013 Alexandre Saint-Jevin (psychanalyste) Morgane Rébulard (typographe), Julien Priez (typographe) et Annick Lantenois (critique).. Ce moment d’échange est organisé par les étudiants du début à la fin (choix des intervenants, communication, modération, éditorialisation). Le recueil des articles permet ainsi de créer une base consultable par tous avant les discussions. Chacun pourra l’acheter en ligne (impression à la demande 12 Inspiré en cela du livre Questions/Questions, initié par Charlotte Cheetham et Samuel Bonnet en 2011. Site web du projet : questionsslashquestions.tumblr.com. Ce recueil n’est, à ma connaissance, pas disponible en PDF.) et télécharger librement le PDF (placé sous licence Creative Commons). Une telle démarche peut sembler évidente pour des étudiants en design, au fait des spécificités de circulation des pensées dans les environnements numériques. Pour autant, mis à part certains laboratoires de recherche universitaires, les établissements scolaires français se sont-ils vraiment engagés en faveur d’un partage des travaux à l’intérieur et au-delà de leurs enceintes ? Il est malheureusement permis d’en douter. Mais pour actualiser les pratiques, nous dit Annick Lantenois, encore « faut-il que chaque acteur du design graphique accepte de sortir de son statut et de ses certitudes : s’aventurer dans l’inconnu 13 Annick Lantenois, Le vertige du funambule. Le design graphique, entre économie et morale, Paris, B42, 2010, 4 e de couverture. ».
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Date
December 2019
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Article publié dans la revue Cités, Paris, Puf, no 80, dossier « L’intelligence artificielle : enjeux éthiques et politiques » dirigé par Vanessa Nurock.
Résumé
Le regain d’intérêt pour l’intelligence artificielle (IA) des années 2010 engendre des programmes « auto-apprenants », ceux des techniques du deep learning, dont les logiques de fonctionnement sont structurellement inintelligibles (principe de la « boîte noire »). Ces IA investissent progressivement les capacités d’invention et d’imagination, et tendent donc à se substituer aux tâches communément attribuées aux designers. Le risque est alors que le design ne devienne qu’une puissance de production de marchandises et de motifs automatisés. Face au formatage des expériences humaines dans ce qu’elles ont de plus singulier, quelles marges de manœuvre peut-on inventer ? Des contre-pouvoirs sont-ils encore envisageables ?
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Date
April 2016
Type
PublicationContexte
Anthony Masure, « L’injonction à la créativité dans le design. Des logiciels de création innovants aux programmes inventifs », dans : Anne-France Kogan, Yanita Andonova (dir.), actes du colloque « De l’injonction à la créativité à sa mise en œuvre : quel parallèle entre monde de l’art et monde productif ? » [2015], MSH Nantes, Mines Nantes, université Paris 13, 2016, p. 16-23
Résumé
Il est de plus en plus demandé au design de se placer du côté de la « créativité » et de « l’innovation », comme si cela allait de soi. Que recouvre cette injonction, et comment est-elle mise en œuvre ? Après avoir situé le design dans une tension entre le monde productif et le monde de l’art, nous examinerons quelques logiciels sensés « exalter » la créativité des utilisateurs avant de conclure sur une vision du design échappant à cette injonction stérilisante.
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June 2017
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Anthony Masure, «Peut-on encore ne pas travailler?», Cité du Design / ESADSE, Azimuts, no47, juin 2017, p.20-35
Résumé
Tandis que le travail, en crise, est de plus en plus recherché, mince est la limite entre des emplois salariés, pour lesquels il faut en faire toujours plus, et une myriade de micro-tâches non rémunérées, qui donnent l’impression de travailler jour et nuit. Autrement dit : peut-on encore ne pas travailler ? Afin de traiter ce paradoxe, nous examinerons tout d’abord le passage du métier à des professions employées à faire croître le capital. Ensuite, après avoir vu en quoi l’époque contemporaine pourrait signer une possible « mort de l’emploi », nous analyserons en quoi le développement du « labeur numérique » (digital labor) et des objets supposément « intelligents » (smart) brouille la distinction entre le temps libre et le temps travaillé. Afin de sortir de ces impasses, nous nous demanderons si le design, en tant que travail de « qualités » inutiles, pourrait permettre d’envisager de nouveaux rapports au temps.
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Date
September 2017
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Anthony Masure, «Panne des imaginaires technologiques ou design pour un monde réel?», dans : actes de la journée d’étude «CinéDesign : pour une convergence disciplinaire du cinéma et du design» des 6 & 7 octobre 2016, dir. Irène Dunyach & Saul Pandelakis, université Toulouse – Jean Jaurès, laboratoire LLA-CRÉATIS, septembre 2017
Résumé
Il est couramment admis que les films de science-fiction, censés incarner l’imaginaire du futur, multipliraient les stéréotypes d’objets (espaces domestiques, véhicules, choix typographiques, etc.). Ce constat, qui reste à interroger, fait dire au chercheur Nicolas Nova qu’il existerait ainsi une « panne des imaginaires ». Alors qu’il est fréquemment demandé au design d’« innover », nous nous demanderons en quoi certaines séries récentes comme Mr. Robot ou Black Mirror permettraient de contester cette injonction. Il s’agira d’analyser en quoi les croisements entre cinéma et design peuvent recouper des critiques politiques et sociales adressées aux nouvelles technologies (Bernard Stiegler, Evgeny Morozov). Entre les extrême dystopiques (films catastrophe) et utopiques (d’un monde sauvé par la science), qu’est-ce que la science-fiction nous dit du design ? Comment le design pourrait-il à la fois renouveler les imaginaires et agir dans un monde « réel » (Victor Papanek) ?
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December 2019
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Version enriched with a chapter of the essay Design and digital humanities (2017), translation from French by Jesse Cohn], Berlin, Interface Critique, dir. Florian Hadler, Daniel Irrgang, Alice Soiné, no 2, “Navigating the Human”
Résumé
Télécharger l’article en PDF Voir l’article [En ligne « Human, All Too Human is the monument to a crisis. It calls itself a book for free spirits: almost every sentence is the manifestation of a victory – I used it to liberate myself from things that did not belong to my nature. Idealism is one of them: the title says “where you see ideal things, I see – human, oh, only all too human!”… I know people better. The term “free spirit” does not want to be understood in any other way: a spirit that has become free, that has taken hold of itself again. — Friedrich Nietzsche 1 Friedrich Nietzsche, Ecce Homo [1888], in: The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols: And Other Writings, ed. Aaron Ridley and Judith Norman (Cambridge, England 2005), pp. 115–116. In this seemingly autobiographical fragment, Nietzsche refers back to his book Human, All Too Human [1876-1878]. In current discussions of “interface design,” catchphrases such as “user-centered design,” “the user experience,” and by extension, “experience design” might not, at first glance, seem to draw scrutiny. After all, isn’t the purpose of design to create ‘useful’ things based on the users’ needs, ‘centered’ on them and on the improvement of their ‘experience’? However, if one looks at these concepts more closely, one might wonder what these methods engage as conceptions of design, and more broadly as an understanding of human relations and human-machine relations. Indeed, it is not unproblematic to presuppose that “we” are users first and foremost, i.e. beings solely concerned with relations of utility. What are we to think, then, of terms such as “user-centered design (UCD) 2 Shawn Lawton Henry, Justin Thorp, Notes on User Centered Design Process (UCD). W3C.org (March 2004), http://www.w3.org/WAI/redesign/ucd, access: July, 1, 10:00pm., ” “human-centered design (HCD) 3 Human-Centered Design Toolkit. Ideo (2009), http://www.ideo.com/work/human-centered-design-toolkit, access: July, 1, 10:00pm.,” “activity-centered design (ACD)4 See Geraldine Gay, Helene Hembrooke, Activity-Centered Design. An Ecological Approach to Designing Smart Tools and Usable Systems (Cambridge, MA 2004).,” or “people-centered design (PCD)5 Hugh Graham, People-Centered Design. hughgrahamcreative.com, http://hughgrahamcreative.com/people-centered-design, access: July, 1, 10:00pm.”? Why must design be “centered” on something? More broadly, aren’t there some aspects of human life that can’t be replaced by the “experiences” generated by “user-centered” design? In order to critique the engineering of design and the reduction of the designer’s task to normative and even quantitative methodologies, I propose, as a research method, to bring together an historical study of the concepts to be questioned with technical analyses and the related discourses surrounding them. More precisely, I could synthesize this text’s research method in the following way 6 Here, I borrow the useful summary provided by Alexandre Saint-Jevin in his review of the essay Design et humanités numérique s: Alexandre Saint-Jevin, Sur la trace de l’humain dans les « objets » de design. Non-Fiction (2018),: 1 . To analyze the concept determining the process by which design issues were constructed in order to draw out the underlying philosophical concepts. 2 . To retrace the genealogy of this concept, connecting the technical reality of the products of design with the discourses of all entities being at the origin of the project (originators, designers, contractors, communicators, marketers, etc.) regarding these products. 3 . To synthesize the history and the discourses of these entities concerning matters of design more broadly in order to draw out the philosophical issues entailed in them. 4 . To connect the philosophical issues revealed by the analysis of the discourses of the entities with those of the original concept to show how these come to condition and determine the technical reality. This is thus not a matter of constructing a model of design activity in the form of logical sequences (diagrams, schemata, timelines, etc): rather than trying to tell designers what they should do, this analysis is intended to provide them with critical tools allowing them to analyze, in their own process, what they have already made or are still working on. In order to open up possibilities for making interfaces other than the behavioral scripts of experiential design, I will begin my analysis by turning back to the history of the first graphic interfaces. How do the values embedded within these technological strata infuse and even limit our relations to technology? Xerox Star’s “conceptual model of the user” The expression “user interface” correlates temporally with the development of microcomputers at the end of the 1960s. In 1968, Douglas Engelbart presented the result of the research undertaken at Xerox PARC at the time of an event retrospectively called the “mother of all demos”, where were first showcased videoconferencing, teleconferencing, email, the hypertext navigation system, and the interface modeled on the “office metaphor” based on “windows,” “folders,” the “trash,” etc. Partially realized in the 1973 Xerox Alto 7 Only 1500 units were produced: 1000 for employees of Xerox and the remainder for universities and public institutions. computer, this first form of graphic user interface (GUI) was included in the 1981 Xerox Star. Moreover, the latter was accompanied by network access, email capabilities, a mouse, and a WYSIWIG (What You See Is What You Get) printing system precise enough to make what is seen on the screen coincide with a paper output. In order to specify the origin of the conceptual model used as a basis for a design explicitly asserting needs of “users,” it is important to reconsider the founding principles of the Xerox Star. In an article dating from 1982, five former employees of Xerox Corporation explain their comprehension of the human-machine relations, and more precisely their methodology of interface design: “We have learned from Star the importance of formulating the fundamental concepts (the user’s conceptual model) before software is written, rather than tacking on a user interface afterward. […] It was designed before the functionality of the system was fully decided. It was even designed before the computer hardware was built. We worked for two years before we wrote a single line of actual product software.” 8 David Canfield Smith, Charles Irby, Ralph Kimball, Bill Verplank, and Eric Harslem, Designing the Star User Interface. Byte 4 (1982), p. 246. Reprinted online: Contemporary readers, used to design being relegated to the end of a process, dependent on a multitude of external parameters, will certainly wonder at the attribution of such importance to design “before” the material specifications are even formulated. In the case of the Star, it was much more a question of introducing the market to “radically new concepts”9 Ibid.p. 242. than of seeking to apply an “order” issued from above. By dedicating a quantity of memory to the screen display, the originators of the Star were able to create a visual interface functioning in tandem with the mouse (also used on Xerox Alto), defined in the 1982 text as “a way to quickly point to items on the screen 10 Ibid. p. 246.” more effective than the cursors activated by the keyboard. It is particularly interesting to study how the Xerox teams developed a project methodology linked to what is today called “user-centered design.” The development of an interface poses many problems indeed: taking into account the variety of languages in which the users address their commands to the computer, the design of on-screen representations displaying the state of the system to the user, and other abstract problems that can affect the understanding of the system’s behavior. According to the Star teams, these problems are highly subjective, and can be solved only on a case-by-case basis. The method employed thus consisted in focusing on what should precede any design of a successful interface, namely “task analysis”: ” The current task description, with its breakdown of the information objects and methods presently employed, offers a starting point for the definition of a corresponding set of objects and methods to be provided by the computer system [including programs and peripherals]. The idea behind this phase of design is to build up a new task environment for the user, in which he can work to accomplish the same goals as before, surrounded now by a different set of objects, and employing new methods.11 Ibid.p. 248. “ For Xerox, the user is an entity centrally dedicated to carrying out tasks in order to achieve objectives. One finds here the common definition of an algorithm, namely, a set of instructions intended to accomplish a given action. In other words, isn’t this understanding of what a user is derived from the “program” (an algorithm written in machine language) as a model of thought? Isn’t it odd that, in order to improve human-machine relations, human beings are to be imagined on the model of the machines? In this sense, what one would call a “user” in the data-processing context would often be merely a logical reduction of human subjectivity, consequently able to hold a dialogue with “extra-human” programs 12 I borrow this expression from the exhibition Haunted By Algorithms, a research project directed by Jeff Guess and Gwenola Wagon, Paris, ENSAPC / YGREC, January 21, 2017 – March 5, 2017.. Just as some see design as a discipline capable of becoming a science 13 See Anthony Masure, Pour une recherche en design sans modèle, in: Design et humanités numériques, ed. Anthony Masure (Paris 2, here it is a matter of constructing “models of behavior” in order to improve the effectiveness of the “tasks.” The etymology of the French noun “tâche” (“task”) can be traced back to the Latin verb “taxare” (“to tax»), indicating “a determinate work that one is obliged to perform, together with a concept of ‘remuneration’ [or] moral duty 14 Alain Rey (dir.), Dictionnaire historique de la langue française, Paris, Le Robert, 2010. p. 9620–9621.”. The French verb “tâcher” (“to try to do”), in turn, expresses the idea of striving, sometimes accompanied by the idea of a degree of painful exertion in order to comply with the imperative to “try to do” something. If the user is a being whose objectives, to be realized, necessarily pass by a series of tasks to achieve, wouldn’t this make us “tâcherons” (“drudges”), i.e. “person[s] performing work on command [emphasis by the author/s] without much intelligence”? 15 Ibid.p. 248–249. In the case of the Xerox Star, nevertheless, things are more complicated. The fact of starting from a “user-model” comprised of a small set of design principles makes it possible to ensure an overall coherence, since “the user experience [acquired in] in one area… [can] apply in others 16 David Canfield Smith, Charles Irby, Ralph Kimball, Bill Verplank, and Eric Harslem, Designing the Star User Interface. Byte 4 (1982), p. 242: “The Star user interface adheres rigorously to a small set of design principles. These principles make the system seem familiar and friendly, simplify the human-machine interaction, […] and allow user experience in one area to apply in others.” Emphasis mine.,” thus reducing the cognitive load involved in the use of the computer system. Another aspect discussed in the article – connected with the concept of coherence – pertains to the concept of “familiarity” (the “Familiar User’s Conceptual Model”): “A user’s conceptual model is the set of concepts a person gradually acquires to explain the behavior of a system […] The first task for a system designer is to decide what model is preferable for users […]. This extremely important step is often neglected or done poorly. The [Xerox] Star designers devoted several work-years […] [to] evolving […] an appropriate model for an office information system: the metaphor of a physical office.”17 Ibid.p. 252. The Xerox Star interface was thus constructed on the basis of the users’ current universe, namely, the hierarchical model of the office. It was important to produce a “familiar” interface in order to reduce sources of friction, making the “user experience” seamless. Thus, users find in the machine their customary division, organization, and management of tasks. For example, the pile of paper messages on the physical desk of office-worker users is translated, in their computer, into a pictogram of an envelope indicating when a new email has been received. It is interesting to specify that the metaphorical model defined in advance of the actual development of the program de facto modifies the functions of this program: the design is not approached as a matter of mere presentation. Taking the example of the emails once again, typing a “send mail” command can thus be avoided by manipulating the icons. A last important aspect of the Star interface pertains to the personalization of the interface, as the movable icons make it possible to configure the work environment. Summarizing the overall principles of the Xerox Star, what is indicated here by the term “user” is in fact a succession of goal-directed “tasks” from which the designers construct a “conceptual model” as a basis for the developing of the computer system and ensuring its metaphorical coherence. By providing users with a “familiar” and “friendly” environment, the interface thus developed is intended to increase their productivity by developing “human-machine synergism.” However, the Xerox Star’s “friendly” interface reveals its limitations in certain functions where the office metaphor is inoperative: “One of the raisons d’être for Star is that physical objects do not provide people with enough power to manage the increasing complexity of the “information age.” For example, we can take advantage of the computer’s ability to search rapidly by providing a search function for its electronic file drawers, thus helping to solve the long-standing problem of lost files.” 18 Ibid.p. 282. The 1982 article concludes on an intriguing note, observing that it is difficult to choose between several models of interfaces while relying on stable (scientific) criteria: “User-interface design is still an art, not a science.” 19 Ibid. : « User-interface design is still an art, not a science. » Although the Xerox Star text ultimately pleads for the establishment of a “more rigorous process” for the development of interfaces, such an assertion must elicit the contemporary reader’s curiosity. The emergence of “rationalized” graphic operating systems In spite of the commercial failure of Xerox Star, these design methods will be a success, definitively changing our relations with electronic machines. A precursor of the research conducted to Xerox PARC, Jef Raskin’s thesis in computer science, Quick-Draw Graphic System, published in 1967 (i.e., 6 years before the Xerox Alto 20 At the beginning of the Seventies, the IBM Usability lab was solely concerned with ergonomics. The Psychology of Computer Programming was published by Gerald Marvin Weinberg in 1971, and the work of Stuart K. Card, Allen Newell and Thomas P. Moran was only made known to the general public after the publication of The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction in 1983.), argued for a data-processing environment in which the graphic interface would hold a dominant place. Such an idea was not at all self-evident at the end of the 1960s: “The most heretical statement I made […] was that my work was based on a “design and implementation philosophy which demanded generality and human usability over execution speed and efficiency.” This at a time when the main aim of computer science courses was to teach you to make programs run fast and use as little memory as possible.” 21 Dr. Bob, Articles from Jef Raskin about the history of the Macintosh. Dr Bob Tech Blog (2013), https://drbobtechblog.com/articles-from-jef-raskin-about-the-history-of-the-macintosh/, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. After contacts with Xerox concerning the development of the mouse, Jef Raskin was hired by Apple in 1978. It is under his impetus and that of Bill Atkinson 22 The title of Jef Raskin’s thesis (A Hardware-Independent Computer Drawing System Using List-Structured Modeling: The Quick-Draw Graphics System, Pennsylvania State University, 1967) was echoed when Bill Atkinson named the Macintosh’s graphics package. that Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak took note of the research conducted by Xerox PARC on graphic interfaces. Everyone of us knows the rest of the story. In 1979, the CEO of Apple Inc., Steve Jobs, age 24, visited the Xerox facility. In a 1995 documentary, he recalls the shock which this event constituted for him: “They [Xerox] showed me […] three things. […]. One of the things they showed me was object orienting programming […]. The other one they showed me was a networked computer system [of a hundred computers] […]. I didn’t even see that. I was so blinded by the first thing […] which was the graphical user interface. I thought it was the best thing I’d ever seen in my life. Now remember it was very flawed, what we saw was incomplete […] [But, at the time,] within […] ten minutes it was obvious to me that all computers would work like this some day.” 23 Steve Jobs, Triumph of the Nerds: The Rise of Accidental Empires. Documentation. PBS.org (1996), http://www.pbs.org/nerds, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. Following this presentation, obtained in exchange for shares in Apple Inc., Steve Jobs launched the Apple LISA micro-computer, which took the principles of the mouse and the graphic interface from Xerox Star, in 1982. With a price that was too high ($10,000 at the time, or $24,000 today), the LISA was replaced by the much more financially accessible Macintosh, released in 1984. While many still think that Steve Jobs did little more than “steal” the key principles of the Xerox Alto, the history is more complicated than that. The leaders of Xerox had not yet recognized the decisive consequences of what they had discovered, leaving their prospective vision in the hands of the sales and marketing teams, which were focused on photocopiers, the core of the brand, and not on the new market for computers 24 For a detailed history of the Xerox company, see: Douglas K. Smith and Robert C. Alexander, Fumbling the Future: How Xerox Invented, then Ignored, the First Personal Computer (New York 1988).. Bill Atkinson would have to rewrite and improve the quantity of functions in order for the LISA, and then the Macintosh, to take advantage of a “superior” graphic interface (with the addition of scrolling menus, the opening of windows with a double-click, the trash icon, etc). No line of code was “copied and pasted,” strictly speaking 25 Christoph Dernbach, Did Steve Jobs steal everything from Xerox PARC? Mac History (February 2012), http://www.mac-history.net/computer-history/2012-03-22/apple-and-xerox-parc, access: July, 1, 10:00pm.. In order to bolster the supply of software for Apple machines, at the beginning of the 1980s, Steve Jobs invited Microsoft to publish programs for the Macintosh. In spite of Jobs’ request to Bill Gates (then CEO of Microsoft) not to use a mouse-controlled graphic interface before the Macintosh (1984) had been on sale for a year, Microsoft surprised everyone by announcing the operating system Windows 1.0 in 1983 26 Windows 1.0 was not yet a complete operating system, but rather a “graphic shell” that could be used by third-party software. , although it would only make its official debut in 1985. When Jobs, furious, accused Bill Gates of having betrayed him, Gates replied that they had both stolen from their “rich neighbor, Xerox.”27 Andy Hertzfeld, A Rich Neighbor Named Xerox. Folklore.org (November 1983), https://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?story=A_Rich_Neighbor_Named_Xerox.txt, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. See also : Andy Hertzfeld, How the Mac was born, and other tales. Conversation with Scott Ard. CNET (January 2005), http://news.cnet.com/How-the-Mac-was-born%2C-and-other-tales/2100-1082_3-5529081.html, access: July, 1, 10:00pm.. The suit brought against Microsoft by Apple in 1988 was unsuccessful in the courts. Don Norman: the limits of the “user experience” After the release of Microsoft Windows, the design methods used in interface design were structured around scientific disciplines connected with this field. In addition to the expressions “human usability” and “user interface,” that of “user experience” (often shortened to “UX”) then achieved a notable success. The latter seems to appear for the first time in 1986 28 For a detailed chronology of the history of this term, see: Peter Merholz, Whither “User Experience”? Peterme.com (November 1998), http://www.peterme.com/index112498.html, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. in a book co-edited with Donald Norman (a cognitive science researcher), titled User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction 29 Donald A. Norman and Stephen W. Draper, User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction (San Diego 1986).. After a consideration of the impossibility of arriving at a univocal meaning by means of standardized images (pictograms), this quotation follows: “Direct Engagement occurs when a user experiences direct interaction with the objects in a domain. Here, there is a feeling of involvement directly with a world of objects rather than of communicating with an intermediary. The interactions are much like interacting with objects in the physical world. […] [T]he interface and the computer become invisible. Although we believe this feeling of direct engagement to be of critical importance […] we know little about the actual requirements for producing it.”30 Edwin L. Hutchins, James D. Hollan, and Donald A. Norman, Direct Manipulation Interfaces, in: User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction, ed. Donald A. Norman and Stephen W. Draper (San Diego 1986), pp. 114-115. “User experience” can thus be understood as a will to export the Xerox Star design model to fields other than that of screen interfaces and computers which can disappear, becoming “invisible.” Frequently cited as the originator of this expression, Don Norman defined it as follows in 1998: “I invented the term [user experience] because I thought Human Interface and usability 31 The concept of “usability” that Don Norman judges insufficient, was addressed by its proponents, Jeff Rubin and Dana Chisnell, in these terms: “when a product or service is truly usable, the user can do what he or she wants to do the way he or she expects to be able to do it, without hindrance, hesitation, or questions.” Source: Jeff Rubin and Dana Chisnell, Handbook of Usability Testing. Second Edition. How to Plan, Design, and Conduct Effective Tests (Indianapolis 2008 [1994]), p. 4. were too narrow: I wanted to cover all aspects of the person’s experience with a system, including industrial design, graphics, the interface, the physical interaction, and the manual.” 32 Don Norman, quoted in: Peter Merholz, Whither ‘User Experience’? This broader aspect of “user experience” was then refined in the “canonical” version formulated by Jakob Nielsen and Don Norman: “User experience” encompasses all aspects of the end-user’s interaction with the company, its services, and its products. The first requirement for an exemplary user experience is to meet the exact needs of the customer […]. We should also distinguish UX and usability: According to the definition of usability, it is a quality attribute of the UI, covering whether the system is easy to learn, efficient to use, pleasant, and so forth. Again, this is very important, and again total user experience is an even broader concept.” 33 Jakob Nielsen and Don Norman, The Definition of User Experience. Nielsen Norman Group, http://www.nngroup.com/articles/definition-user-experience, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. “Experience design” and the myth of “invisible” data processing This interest, from then on focusing on the user rather than the technological apparatus (the interface), is even more explicit in the phrase “user-centered design” (“UCD”), which consists in basing the whole methodology of design on the central point that is the user. This design methodology enjoyed considerable success, perhaps because of the bond it helped establish between the marketing services tasked with studying consumers and the teams tasked with designing the products. However, by the admission of its own proponent, Don Norman, the term “user” has shown its limitations. In a 2006 article titled “Words Matter. Talk About People: Not Customers, Not Consumers, Not Users,” Don Norman admitted: “We depersonalize the people we study by calling them “users.” Both terms are derogatory. They take us away from our primary mission: to help people. […] People are rich, complex beings. […] A label such as customer, consumer or user ignores [their] […] social structures. […] It is time to wipe words such as consumer, customer, and user from our vocabulary. Time to speak of people. Power to the people.”34 Don Norman, Words Matter. Talk About People: Not Customers, Not Consumers, Not Users. jnd.org (2008), http://www.jnd.org/dn.mss/words_matter_talk_a.html, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. In the same way, in 2008: “One of the horrible words we use is “users.” I am on a crusade to get rid of the word “users.” I would prefer to call them “people.” […] We design for people, we don’t design for users.” 35 Don Norman at UX Week 2008, Adaptive Path. YouTube, https://youtu.be/WgJcUHC3qJ8, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. Let us summarize these points. The methodology of “user-centered design” consists in designing so as to treat each human being as a user, as a person dedicated to maintaining with companies only relations “centered” on his or her “exact needs,”36 Jakob Nielsen and Don Norman, The Definition of User Experience. Nielsen Norman Group, http://www.nngroup.com/articles/definition-user-experience, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. concerning which there should be no “hindrance[s], hesitation[s], or questions.”37 Jeff Rubin and Dana Chisnell, Handbook of Usability Testing. How to Plan, Design, and Conduct Effective Tests (New York 2008), p. 4. This current of thought results from a scientific modeling of the principles that governed the design of the Xerox Star in order to make it a “personal” machine, optimizing the tasks to be performed by the user. Retrospectively, the performative texts of Don Norman speaking in praise of the study of “needs,” by the admission of their author, led to a dead end, because the human being cannot be reduced to a specific role 38 This idea was inscribed within the ISO standards, which propose replacing the expression “user-centered experience” with “human-centred design.” See: ISO 9241-210: 2010. Ergonomics of human-system interaction — Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems. Iso.org (March 2010), https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/en/#iso:std:iso:9241:-210:ed-1:v1:en, access: July, 1, 10:00pm.. Such a reversal of thought might be amusing. However, on closer inspection, wouldn’t one also have to interpret these contradictory injunctions as the sign of a power belonging not to the “people,” but to those who make these speeches? In other words, isn’t this an indictment of those who are constantly getting richer (in the banal sense of the term) by controlling the circulation of the design methodologies that are to be gotten rid of by this “crusade”? More than a plea in favor of taking complexity into account in design, this “appeal to the human,” for Don Norman, provides a rationale for gradually eliminating “interfaces” in the name of an “invisible” computing 39 Donald A. Norman, The Invisible Computer. Why Good Products Can Fail, the Personal Computer Is So Complex, and Information Appliances Are the Solution (Cambridge MA, 1998)., the products of which would be “human-centered.”40 Chapter 2 of The Invisible Computer is titled “Growing up: Moving from technology-centered to human-centered products.” This prediction of invisibility, passing under the guise of a change in vocabulary, a priori innocent, was so absorbed so thoroughly by the corporations that in 2012, Apple made it into a selling point: “We believe technology is at its very best when it’s invisible, when you’re conscious only of what you’re doing, not the device you’re doing it with. An iPad is the perfect expression of that idea. It’s just this magical pane of glass. It can become anything you want it to be […] It’s a more personal experience with technology than people have ever had.” 41 Official Apple (New) iPad Trailer. YouTube (March 2012), https://youtu.be/RQieoqCLWDo , access: July, 1, 10:00pm. However, Don Norman’s big picture does not mean that his idea of “invisible” computing is viable. The important term here is “experience,” which goes hand in hand with that of “magic.” What could be more magical, indeed, than experiencing an “invisible” technology? The artist Olia Lialina, in a critical article on the study of the concept of user, does not join in the chorus: “This is why Interface Design starts to rename itself to Experience Design — whose primary goal is to make users forget that computers and interfaces exist. With Experience Design there is only you and your emotions to feel, goals to achieve, tasks to complete. ” 42 Olia Lialina, Turing Complete User (2012), http://contemporary-home-computing.org/turing-complete-user/, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. A world without experience In the conclusion of her article studying the limitations of an exclusion of the term user of the methods of interface design, Olia Lialina proposes to return to foundations predating the Xerox Star, namely those developed by the computer scientist Ted Nelson in his 1974 work Computer Lib/Dream Machine: “COMPUTING HAS ALWAYS BEEN PERSONAL. By this I mean that if you weren’t intensely involved in it, sometimes with every fiber in your mind atwitch, you weren’t doing computers, you were just a user. If you get involved, it involves all of you: your heart and mind and way of doing things and your image of yourself. A whole way of life.” 43 Theodor Holm Nelson, Computer Lib. You can and must understand computers now (self-published, revised edition 1987 [1974]), p. 3. The argument is strong. Nelson’s denunciation of a “naïve” use points to the risk of a loss of contact with the computer, which, from Xerox Star to the iPad, presupposes that everything “real” (real life, creativity, etc) is external to the machine. However, in spite of the ascendancy of tactile interfaces (without mouses), in spite of the emergence of gestural interfaces (without buttons) and sound interfaces (without screens), and in spite of the return of command-line interfaces (without icons), it is clear that the great principles of the graphic interfaces created at Xerox PARC at the beginning of the 1970s are still the main ones governing our relations with electronic machines – which are not yet “invisible,” far from it. Take, for example, the “Apple Human Interface Guidelines” 44 See for example: “Designing for Yosemite: […] A great OS X app integrates seamlessly into this environment, while at the same time providing custom functionality and a unique user experience.” Human Interface Guidelines, developer.apple.com, https://developer.apple.com/library/mac/documentation/UserExperience/Conceptual/OSXHIGuidelines, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. and Google’s “Material Design,” 45 Google Material Design, material.io (first version published June 2014), https://www.google.com/design/spec/material-design/introduction.html, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. which, in the 2010s, are the recommended readings – with the proviso of reading critically – for anyone interested in interface design. In spite of its widespread acceptance, the cognitive model of an interface coupled with an idealized user (understood as a bundle of habits) has its limitations. Since Jef Raskin’s 1967 text associating “human usability” with efficient task completion 46 See Jef Raskin, A Hardware-Independent Computer Using List-Structured Modeling: The Quick-Draw Graphics System (Pennsylvania, 1967)., the will to create a graphic interface to procure for the “user” a new work environment and new methods “to accomplish the same goals as before” 47 David Canfield Smith, Charles Irby, Ralph Kimball, Bill Verplank, and Eric Harslem, Designing the Star User Interface, p. 248. has consisted in envisaging electronic media as “problem solvers” rather than as powers of transformation and invention. However, as the humanities specialist Yves Citton perceptively notes: “The invention of communication technologies […] takes place within a vast nebula of hopes, anxieties, dreams, tinkerings, parallel knowledges, subversive appropriations and reappropriations, crossing many traditional disciplinary fields […]. Indeed, our media cannot be reduced to mere instruments for the transmission of forms and contents: it functions, first and foremost, in just the same way as the mediums who fascinate us, delude us, hypnotize us and stimulate us via simulations that penetrate our senses.” 48 Yves Citton, Gestes d’humanités. Anthropologie sauvage de nos expériences esthétiques (Paris, 2012), pp. 21–22. Taking into consideration these foundational design texts of the computer age, it is obvious that electronic machines raise questions that did not exist before. But perhaps it is precisely against these innovations that methodologies of design were themselves designed with an eye to preserving the powers and knowledges already in place. In spite of its undeniably advanced technology, the Xerox Star did not have the full support of the corporate leaders, who preferred to focus on the photocopier business, more in phase with the “uses” of the time. In this history of “user-centered design,” an expression originating after the Xerox Star, it is indeed a matter of a concern about forgetting the “useful,” the utility of the object. But is this really possible in a world in which marketing services, for example, constantly seek to anticipate consumers’ “needs ” by statistical processes linked to observation protocols? Another factor suggesting a design constructing against technological innovations – i.e., for habits – is this history of the “center,” a term which should now be examined. This twofold suffix coupled with design could have been the subject of variations. Why does one never speak, for example, of “form-centered” design, for example, or of “practice-centered” design? Perhaps is this because these two concepts (there could be others) resist the idea of a “center,” of delimitation. If one considers the concept of form, it is notable that this, historically, was related to design – according to the formula of the architect Louis Sullivan, according to which “form ever follows function.” As a canny observer of a history that sometimes “tramples” (in which the issues are sometimes obscured, sometimes rediscovered), the philosopher Pierre-Damien Huyghe notes that the concept of form expresses the “artistic interest” of design: “It was not only a question of creating potentially functional objects. The concern for making form is absolutely essential to the design. We may note here that the Latin forma can be translated as “beauty.””49 Pierre-Damien Huyghe, On appelle beaucoup trop de choses ‘design’. Interview with Julie Delem. Naja21 (April 2015), http://www.naja21.com/fr/espace-journal/pierre-damien-huyghe-on-appelle-beaucoup-trop-de-choses-design, access: July, 1, 10:00pm. In a more general way, design, in so far as it encompasses the capacity to transform the world, cannot “center” on anything. Design is only of any interest if it is derived from tensions, polarities, contradictions – in other words, the opposite of a center. Olia Lialina, in the conclusion of her article, also refuses to let herself be reduced to a label: “We, general purpose users — not hackers and not people — who are challenging, consciously or subconsciously, what we can do and what computers can do, are the ultimate participants of man-computer symbiosis.” 50 Olia Lialina, Turing Complete User. One must then reconsider the fact that the conceptual model of the 1981 Xerox Star interface was decided “before” the material (hardware) existed, “two years before we wrote a single line of actual product software.” 51 David Canfield Smith, Charles Irby, Ralph Kimball, Bill Verplank, and Eric Harslem, Designing the Star User Interface, p. 246. Retrospectively, this account can be understood as that of a missed encounter with the otherness of the machines, since it is, in effect, a matter of subordinating the digital technology (hardware and software) to a “model,” i.e., to something anticipated and stabilized. This progressive distancing of the concept of the “General Purpose User” 52 Olia Lialina, Turing Complete User.op. cit (active and polyvalent) has made possible the expressions “human-centered design” and “experience design”, which incarnate the promise of a world in which one could “do whatever one wishes,” immediately, as if by “magic.” But which kind of “doing” are we talking about when invisibility becomes the ideal for the machines? This myth of the invisibility of technological innovations in fact already existed in a nascent form at the dawn of personal computing. In a 1979 commercial for the Xerox Alto intended to demonstrate the power of the “office of the future,” an office worker (Bill) arrives at work and greets his colleagues, coffee in hand. When he arrives at his station, he turns on his Alto computer and addresses it verbally: “Hello, Fred.” The computer answers him: “Hello, Bill.” After a series of tasks, easily solved by the machine, comes the final dialogue: Bill (tired): “Anything else?” Fred: A richly detailed bouquet of daisies spreads across the screen. Bill (puzzled): “Flowers? What flowers?” Fred: “Your anniversary is tonight.” Bill (chagrined): “My anniversary. I forgot.” Fred: “It’s okay. We’re only human.” 53 Douglas K. Smith and Robert C. Alexander, Fumbling the Future, (Indiana, 1999), p. 20. What such initiatives describe, paradoxically, is a world without experience [un monde sans expérience] 54 The French word expérience can mean “experience” or “experiment.” (Translator’s note.), in the sense in which experience/experimentation can take place only within a field of possibilities open to uncertainty: Economic power is what the socialization of experiences implements. However, if this implementation augments shared experience and perception day by day, it does not appear authentically. Most often, it borrows the forms of habit, it slips mimetically into experience. 55 Pierre-Damien Huyghe, Faire place, in: Qu’est-ce que l’art domestique ?, ed. Richard Conte and Sandrine Morsillo (Paris, 2006), p. 29. Symptomatic of an era when “apparatuses” 56 The apparatus is defined by Pierre-Damien Huyghe as “a technological method distinct from the tool and the machine [which produces] within us a power of perception, a particular form of sensibility.” See: Pierre-Damien Huyghe, Introduction au dossier “Temps et appareils”. Plastik 3 (2003), p. 4. are no longer objects worthy of interest, human-machine relations are increasingly marked (branded) by the registers of utility, output, or time-saving. The human experience of “experience design” is often reduced to an experimental situation, that of a rat seeking the way out of a labyrinth. Even if it is “friendly” or “invisible,” this technological medium is no less a straightjacket, a controlled situation in which any exchange is anticipated and preprogrammed. When we are mirrored in the form of the “human, all too human” computer, we “ordinary people” are the ones who stand to lose sight of our complex and infinite possibilities.
Notions
Personnes citées
Date
May 2015
Type
PublicationContexte
Emeline Brulé, Anthony Masure, «Le design de la recherche : normes et déplacements du doctorat en design», Paris, PUF, Sciences du Design, no1, mai 2015, p.58-67
Résumé
Prenant acte d’une spécificité du design quant au travail des supports d’expression, cet article se donne comme champ d’étude les formes et formats de thèses dans le contexte de la recherche en design. Nous considérerons ici la thèse comme un «type» de document ayant intégré au fil du temps un certain nombre de conventions qui ne sont que trop rarement interrogées. Nous reviendrons tout d’abord sur son évolution historique et discuterons des conventions et normes des thèses en design à l’heure actuelle. Nous étudierons ensuite la manière dont ces dernières structurent le travail de recherche pour nous demander si la recherche en design se doit d’en créer d’autres, ou si elle doit œuvrer à les déconstruire. Enfin, nous nous demanderons si le design peut être vu comme un «laboratoire» permettant de déplacer les façons de faire de la recherche, au sens large.
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Personnes citées
Objets mentionnés
Médias
Date
January 2021
Type
PublicationContexte
Contribution à l’ouvrage Colloque Vues & Données – De la prise de vue à l’épreuve de la donnée comme histoire matérielle de l’image, dir. Fabien Vallos, Arles, ENSP, Dijon, Les presses du réel.
Résumé
La collecte des « données » numériques à grande échelle, sur lesquelles les citoyens n’ont que peu de « prise », prolonge la vieille utopie de mesurer chaque entité matérielle du monde. L’invisibilisation (la soustraction à la vue) des opérations de calcul et de traduction propre aux technologies numériques masque les idéologies (politiques, etc.) qui les sous-tendent : comment faire pour que le code informatique n’ait pas pour seule visée le management des êtres humains ? Pour proposer des réorientations soutenables permettant de desserrer l’emprise des données numériques, il est nécessaire d’aller à rebours des discours inscrivant l’informatique dans une évolution voire dans une révolution. Une étude resituant la notion de donnée depuis l’apparition des « appareils » photographiques fait ainsi apparaître des disjonctions entre ce qu’on pensait être nouveau et ce qui était déjà là parmi nous, en latence.
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Date
April 2023
Type
BlogContexte
Anthony Masure, Florie Souday, « IA et pédagogie : un état de l’art », blog AnthonyMasure.com, 24 avril 2023 [pour la première version]
Résumé
Cet état de l’art propose d’examiner une sélection de ressources traitant des enjeux pédagogiques des « intelligences [dites] artificielles » contemporaines. Apparues pour le grand public avec le lancement de services orientés divertissement et création tels que DALL·E (janvier 2021), Midjourney (juillet 2022) ou ChatGPT (novembre 2022), les technologies du machine learning (apprentissage automatique) permettent d’automatiser la production d’objets numériques tels que du texte, des images, mais aussi du son, de la vidéo ou de la 3D — ce qui oblige à repenser les compétences à enseigner et les façons de les évaluer. Cette initiative vise ainsi à poser, de façon éclairée, les termes d’un débat de fond quant à la place des IA en milieu scolaire afin de préfigurer des formats de cours, exercices et projets de recherche contributifs.
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Personnes citées
Objets mentionnés
Médias
Date
October 2016
Type
ConférenceContexte
Conférence donnée à la journée d’étude « Cinéma-Design, pour une convergence disciplinaire du cinéma et du design », université Toulouse – Jean Jaurès
Résumé
Il est couramment admis que les films de science-fiction, censés incarner l’imaginaire du futur, multipliraient les stéréotypes d’objets (espaces domestiques, véhicules, choix typographiques, etc.). Ce constat, qui reste à interroger, fait dire au chercheur Nicolas Nova qu’il existerait ainsi une « panne des imaginaires ». Alors qu’il est fréquemment demandé au design d’« innover », nous nous demanderons en quoi certaines séries récentes (Silicon Valley, Mr. Robot, Black Mirror) permettraient de contester cette injonction. Pour cela, nous étudierons également des productions relevant des champs du design fiction (Bruce Sterling), du design critique (Dunne & Raby) et de leur réception française (Jehanne Dautrey et Emanuele Quinz, N O R M A L S). Il s’agira d’analyser en quoi ces croisements recoupent des critiques politiques et sociales adressées aux nouvelles technologies (Bernard Stiegler, Evgeny Morozov). Entre les extrême dystopiques (films catastrophe) et utopiques (d’un monde sauvé par la science), qu’est-ce que la science-fiction nous dit du design ? Comment le design pourrait-il à la fois renouveler les imaginaires et agir dans un monde « réel » (Victor Papanek) ?
Notions
Personnes citées
Objets mentionnés
Date
May 2018
Type
ConférenceContexte
Intervention au séminaire U+ / Plurality University, séance 2, « Y a-t-il une panne des imaginaires du futur ? », Paris, Cnam, 22 mai 2018.
Résumé
Selon Nicolas Nova, l’industrie cinématographique de la science-fiction multiplirait les stéréotypes d’objets (espaces domestiques, véhicules, choix typographiques, etc.) et entraînerait une « panne des imaginaires ». Après avoir examiné une série de contre-arguments permettant de resituer le rôle de la science-fiction quant à la mise en récits du futur, nous nous demanderons quelle place peut jouer la fiction dans des démarches de design. Faut-il séparer les « fictions de clôture » des « fictions potentielles » (Camille de Toledo) ? Qui parle derrière ces récits ? Le design est-il soluble dans la fiction ? Après avoir séparé les registres esthétiques et discursifs, nous proposons une compréhension du design au fait de la « pluralité » humaine (Hannah Arendt).
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Date
September 2022
Type
ConférenceContexte
Intervention aux journées d’étude « Enjeux éthiques et esthétiques de l’Intelligence Artificielle », Université de Strasbourg, Littératures, éthique & arts – Lethica.
Résumé
Affiche de l’évènement La prochaine École d’Automne de l’ITI Lethica se tiendra du 28 au 30 septembre 2022 autour des enjeux éthiques et esthétiques de l’Intelligence Artificielle. Abordé dans le cadre de l’École d’Automne 2021, ce sujet a été choisi pour son actualité contemporaine, mais également pour son interdisciplinarité et sa proximité avec les quatre thématiques centrales de Lethica : Révolution morale : accepterons-nous la présence d’intelligences artificielles dans nos vies ? Quel statut moral, juridique, philosophique leur accorderons-nous le cas échéant ? Triage : dès lors que l’intelligence artificielle peut être appelée à faire des choix, comment anticiper sur ces éventuels arbitrages ? (cas, par exemple, des voitures automatiques). Transparence et secret : La gestion de nos données personnelles peut-elle être confiée à une intelligence artificielle ? Faut-il avoir peur des big data ? « Faire cas » : Une intelligence artificielle peut-elle « faire cas » ? Peut-elle être chargée de veiller sur les plus faibles (personnes âgées ; enfants) ? Peut-elle elle-même devenir un « cas », c’est-à-dire développer une forme de singularité ? Pour discuter de ces questions, Lethica a choisi de solliciter des spécialistes issus de domaines variés (littératures, éthique, arts, mais aussi informatique et philosophie) : certains invités sont des chercheurs polyvalents, situés à la croisée de plusieurs disciplines ; d’autres sont engagés dans des pratiques de recherche et de création (ou de recherche-création) ; d’autres encore sont des artistes ou des écrivains bénéficiant d’une reconnaissance nationale et internationale.
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Date
December 2022
Type
ConférenceContexte
Conférence pour le MasterCard Innovation Forum 2022, Paris, Stade de France.
Résumé
Le déploiement du metavers, l’essor des crypto-monnaies et des NFT dessinent les contours d’un futur disruptif. L’édition 2022 du MasterCard Innovation Forum qui se tiendra le 8 décembre interroge toutes ces dimensions, cherche à cerner les opportunités, dessiner les limites et imaginer les solutions pour qu’émerge un futur responsable.